Sex Linked Traits | Genetics | Biology

AMAAAAAZIIIING!!!!!!!!!!! THANK YOU

@THE88DREAMERR THATS WHAT SHE SAID.

THREE minutes in the FEMALE on the BOTTOM left SHOULD be RED--video mistake!!!

@greatpacificmedia the F2 generation punnett square depicts a red eyed male mating with a heterozygous red eyed female. the result would be all red eyed females however, the punnett square depicts a heterozygous female having white eye phenotype

this video confuses me even more..*sigh*..

Cool! saw this in my online biology class! ~yoshi

@hannaharnott yeah buddy. -$wagga

Why's everyone saying the punnet sq is wrong? Its right. X^R X^r x X^R Y^r. R is dominant.

My son-in-law's sister has some congenital disorder(she has been handicap all her life, I don't know the actual condition she has). My son-in laws parents were both normal. Now, using genetic principle, are there any chances that my son-in-law has any recessive gene for the disorder and can pass on to his offspring.Or will the new borns be normal. Please advice.

How can we integrate between X linked inheritance(dominant&recessive) with X activation without any doughts

No the video is right because the males will only pass on a gene for eye color in the X chromosome the Y chromosome does not carry a gene for eye color.

This guy is BORING

MrSark420, you said congenital disorder and not hereditary. If it's congenital it mean the it's environmental (fetal stress in uterus) rather than the genes having defects (mutations). If in fact your son-in-law's sister has congenital disorders, she herself wouldn't even pass it on to her offsprings. But if it's hereditary then it's LIKELY that your son-in-law, like you said, has the recessive gene. Hope this helped.

Okay, I see. Thank you very much!(and yes it was congenital)

Good, well done.

I'm only here for homework

me too

I'm not saying that this isn't good, but John Green and Hank Green are better. It may be who got bored and wondered off just now.

what an exciting soundtrack

How do you know whether or not there is a gene on the Y chromosome in males??

I don't understand how it even proves that the gene is located in a sex chromosome instead of an autosome?

I made this video yeah!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Nice 😂😁

How tf am I supposed to take notes on this bs when this dude is literally confusing me on this even more

Only here for online work

Online school is totally really cool guys

who else is here just for homework?

This comment section is like a History book, all these people are adults now. :') time changes too fast

Anyways

How to Build a Particle Accelerator

A particle accelerator is a complex machine that uses electromagnetic fields to accelerate charged particles, such as protons or electrons, to high speeds. These particles are then directed towards a target, often to explore fundamental physics, produce medical isotopes, or conduct material science research. Building a particle accelerator is no small task; it requires expertise in physics, engineering, and materials science. In this essay, we will explore the basic principles and components required to build a particle accelerator.

#### 1. Understanding the Basics of Particle Acceleration

The goal of a particle accelerator is to accelerate charged particles to high velocities and collide them with a target or with other particles. The acceleration of particles is achieved by applying electric and magnetic fields, which impart kinetic energy to the particles.

The key to acceleration lies in the electric fields, which can be produced by oscillating voltages. These electric fields push the particles, causing them to gain energy each time they pass through the accelerating cavities. Once accelerated, particles can be steered and focused by magnetic fields, which allow them to travel along a specific path.

#### 2. Designing the Accelerator

There are different types of particle accelerators, each designed for specific purposes. The two main types are:

- Linear Accelerators (Linacs): These accelerators accelerate particles in a straight line. They are typically used for initial acceleration before the particles enter more complex systems.

- Circular Accelerators (Cyclotrons and Synchrotrons): These accelerators bend the path of the particles into a circular or spiral shape using magnetic fields. The particles gain energy in each revolution, making it more efficient for high-energy acceleration.

#### 3. Creating the Particle Beam

The first step in building a particle accelerator is to create the particle beam. Depending on the type of accelerator, this can be done using an ion source or an electron gun.

- Ion Sources: These devices ionize atoms by stripping electrons off them. The ions are then directed into the accelerator.

- Electron Guns: These create streams of electrons, often using a heated filament and a strong electric field to accelerate the electrons into a beam.

Once the particles are produced, they are injected into the accelerator. In linear accelerators, the particles pass through a series of accelerating cavities, where high-frequency oscillating electric fields are applied to them. In circular accelerators, the particles are continuously accelerated with each loop around the machine.

#### 4. Accelerating the Particles

To accelerate the particles, you need high-voltage radiofrequency (RF) cavities, which create oscillating electric fields that provide energy to the particles. These cavities work by using alternating current (AC) to create an electric field that accelerates particles through the machine.

- RF Generators: These are used to create the high-frequency waves that power the RF cavities. The frequency and power of the RF signals must be carefully calibrated to ensure the particles receive the right amount of energy at the right time.

- Cavities: Typically made of copper or superconducting materials, these cavities are hollow structures that resonate at the desired frequency. As particles pass through, they are accelerated by the changing electric field within the cavity.

In circular accelerators, magnetic fields are used to keep the particles on a curved path. Superconducting magnets are often used for this purpose because they can generate extremely strong magnetic fields with little energy loss.

#### 5. Magnetic Steering and Focusing

As particles are accelerated, they must be steered and focused to ensure they stay on the correct path. This is achieved through the use of magnets.

- Dipole Magnets: These are used to bend the path of the particles into a circle or spiral. The strength of the magnetic field must be finely tuned to match the speed of the particles.

- Quadrupole and Sextupole Magnets: These magnets are used to focus the particle beam, keeping it tight and preventing it from spreading out. By adjusting the strength of these magnets, the beam’s size and shape can be controlled.

#### 6. Vacuum System

A vacuum system is critical to the operation of the accelerator. Since particles travel at extremely high speeds, they need to avoid collisions with air molecules, which would slow them down or scatter them. A vacuum chamber is created to allow the particles to travel through with minimal resistance. This vacuum system must be able to maintain extremely low pressures, typically in the range of 10^-9 to 10^-11 torr.

#### 7. Detectors and Target Systems

Once the particles are accelerated, they are often directed towards a target or detector system for experimentation. The detectors can be used to study the properties of subatomic particles, measure energy levels, or observe particle collisions.

- Calorimeters: These detectors measure the energy of the particles.

- Tracking Detectors: These systems help track the particles' trajectory and momentum by detecting charged particles as they pass through various materials.

The target system may consist of a thin piece of material that particles collide with, or in some cases, multiple targets may be used to study different types of reactions.

#### 8. Safety Considerations

Building a particle accelerator requires careful attention to safety. The high-energy particles can pose risks of radiation exposure, so shielding is necessary to protect both operators and the environment. Additionally, the high magnetic fields generated by the magnets can pose risks if not properly controlled.

- Radiation Shielding: Concrete walls or other dense materials are often used to contain radiation produced during particle collisions.

- Magnetic Field Safety: Strong magnetic fields can affect nearby electronic devices or cause physical harm to people if not properly contained.

#### 9. Testing and Calibration

Once the accelerator is built, it must undergo rigorous testing and calibration. This includes verifying that the particle beam can be accelerated to the desired energy levels and ensuring that the magnetic fields are properly aligned to steer and focus the beam.

Additionally, the accelerator’s safety systems must be thoroughly tested, including the vacuum system and radiation shielding.

#### 10. Applications of Particle Accelerators

Once operational, particle accelerators have a wide range of applications. In physics research, accelerators are used to probe the fundamental structure of matter, study the forces of nature, and even simulate conditions that existed just after the Big Bang. They are essential tools in particle physics experiments like those conducted at CERN’s Large Hadron Collider (LHC).

Beyond research, particle accelerators are also used in medical applications to produce isotopes for cancer treatment, as well as in materials science to analyze the properties of new materials at the atomic level.

### Conclusion

Building a particle accelerator is a highly intricate and technologically demanding task, involving multiple stages of design, construction, and testing. From creating the particle beam and accelerating the particles to steering them and detecting their properties, each step requires careful precision and coordination. With their ability to probe the fundamental building blocks of the universe, particle accelerators play a critical role in advancing scientific knowledge and have important practical applications in medicine and industry. While constructing such a device is a massive undertaking, the rewards are profound, enabling discoveries that can shape the future of science and technology.